Copyright Darren Witwer 2001

Monistic Discourse

In order for a particular religious manifestation to be purely monistic in form, it is important that the role of evil and the devil be minimized, and all creation is a manifestation of God or one ultimate reality.  The more there is a distinction between body and spirit, between good and evil, angels and devils, saved and damned, then we are talking about a dualistic religion.  There are examples of dualistic and monistic metaphysics in all the world's religions.  This page focuses on the monistic manifestations.

Monistic discourse is, in most of the Western world, the accepted religious response to tragedy and death.  For example, at a funeral for a victim of a car crash or even a killer, the funeral service and various support activities provided by religious institutions will attempt to explain the tragedy in terms of God's plan that we do not understand.  The dualistic response would be to attribute the tragedy to a force of evil like Satan.  Monistic discourse tends to have a calming effect.  Dualistic discourse tends to stimulate anger and reaction.  There is no reason to say that one is better than the other.  Rather, we find that the Monistic explanations are preferred in times of extreme tragedy (except in the public domain of the media).  Dualistic explanations are preferred in cases of systemic problems against which a religious group would like to assemble resistance and activism.  The Pro-Life movement is a good example.  Dualism also is useful in rhetorical or political conflicts so that one side can portray the other side with a simplistic category like "evil" or "subhuman."

The Eighteenth Century philosopher Voltaire wrote the book Candide to parody the extreme, optimistic Monism that was popular at the time.  I do not think it is intended to ridicule Monism in general, but rather Monism in the extreme.  In this, the book is indeed quite hilarious, as is Malcom McDowell's modern rendering (directed by Lindsay Anderson) of the basic concept in the film Oh Lucky Man.  In this, the best of all possible worlds, terrible things do happen.  The problem is how to explain them.  Is everything really for the better?  Is God really in control?

Monistic/Monotheistic Mysticism:  Emphasizes the pursuit of ecstatic communion with a single Ultimate Reality through meditation, prayer and other devotional practices. Although mystics may function in groups, they tend to be more isolated than non-mystical devotees.  This is an excellent link for mystics in general.  The most famous of the early Monistic philosophies is Neoplatonism.  It is important to note that the dualistic philosophy of Gnosticism interacted with the monistic philosophy contemporaneous with it.  For example, Jewish proto-kabbalists demonstrate a complex blending of these two supposedly conflicting approaches.  

Mystics of the most purely monistic type have been especially interested in Nature.  Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Transcendentalist movement is a very good example, as is the philosopher Spinoza (and more Spinoza).  Emerson's ideas were deeply influential in the various movements known as New Age (covered in Unit Six). 

Mysticism has strong roots in Asia.  It is usually Monistic in nature, though many mystics do use dualistic techniques such as extreme asceticism.  There is also a tradition of mysticism in the west. 

Mysticism is not easily defined.  I tend to prefer a broad definition.  "Mysticism" is a term that is usually used to describe either specific practices or discourse.  The practices can range from intense prayer to trances.  In general, ecstatic states of mind, body and spirit are associated with mystic experience.  Mysticism as a discourse consists of speech or writing (or perhaps visual arts or music) that attempt to seek transcendence (a perception of, or union with some ultimate reality or divinity).  It is typical that it contains paradox, which in itself evokes transcendence.  Since paradox depends upon dichotomy and contradiction, most mysticism aims to go beyond or transcend the dualistic perspective.  Mysticism has a long tradition of "playing with" or subverting dualistic categories.

It is also typical that mystic discourse questions the ability of words and reason to explain ultimate truth.  It is also common that mysticism tends toward prophecy and aphorism.  It might echo ancient myths, or it might be an attempt at wholly new forms of expression.  When the mystic wishes to be less opaque, it usually appeals to the models of logic, geometry or mathematics--what philosophers refer to as rationalism.  Note that these discourses aim to describe absolute truths that are independent of our senses.   

It would appear that the concepts of ecstasy and transcendence seem to be the only common experiences.   Further, it would also appear that mystic experience tends to lead toward receptivity and respect for other religions.  The great mystics have generally been very ecumenical.  Apparently the mystic experience tends to erase distinctions, and create a greater sense of universal unity.  It is no surprise that such mystics would encounter resistance from traditional authorities.  As a consequence, most of the mystics of Christian history have been subjected to criticism, imprisonment and even execution.  

Most of the Catholic mystics and Desert Fathers affirm the ecstatic and sometimes erotic nature of their experiences.  Catholic mysticism tends to occur in monastic settings and among hermits.  It is personal and solitary in nature.  Christ is seen as a replacement for a sexual partner.  The Song of Solomon in the Bible has typically been very inspirational to these mystics, as is the symbolism of Christ as the Bridegroom of the Revelation of St. John.  St. John of the Cross, Sta. Theresa of Avila and St. Ignatius of Loyola provide several distinct versions of Catholic mysticism.  St. Benedict's Rule presented the basic concept of Catholic monastic life in the about 530 AD, and a series of men and women founded monasteries and convents.  The history of Catholic monasticism is fascinating and very important for understanding European-American history.

Protestant mysticism is rare in spite of the affirmation of personal contact with God.  This is probably because this contact is generally limited to the medium of scripture and prayer.  The few Protestants that do accept mystical, non-rational experience and communication with God are occasionally treated as heretics and freaks (Holy Rollers (Nazarene), Pentecostals, 7th Day Adventists).  Speaking in tongues is probably the most well known practice.  Yet, most of these sects subscribe to a more dualistic model of reality.  We can describe Gospel music and its religious tradition as a form of Protestant mysticism, but not without acknowledging its African (pagan) roots.  The Quakers are an interesting and divergent example of Protestant mysticism combined with social activism.  William Blake and Emanuel Swedenborg are perhaps the most notable mystic authors within the Protestant tradition.  Blake's mysticism is perhaps best described as prophecy.  However, even today many of their ideas are considered too problematic for many Protestants.  One is unlikely to find their works quoted in a Baptist or Presbyterian church.  

Within Islam, mystic experience is fairly common among the Shi'ites, and especially among the Sufis and Faqirs.  Like the Hindus, they practice in guru--disciple settings with numerous physical disciplines like dancing (Whirling Dervishes), the composition of erotic/mystic poetry and contemplation of God.  The Prophet by Kahil Gibran might be considered an expression of Islamic mysticism.  It is certainly a profound book that many have described as divinely inspired.  Sikhism is an interesting amalgamation of Hindu and Islamic religion.  

Jewish mysticism is similar to Sufism, but lacks the larger group context of the Dervishes.  It is known as Kabbalah or Merkabah mysticism (cultivation of experiences like Ezekiel's vision).  It is common among the Hassidic Jews and is reserved for adult males.  As with many things, this is changing, but the majority of Kabbalistic rabbis are very secretive and do not allow women to study.  For very obvious reasons, Jewish mysticism has served the function of providing an explanation for their suffering and revelations about when the New Kingdom and the Messiah can be expected.  There is also a long tradition of sorcery connected with Kabbalah.  Many of the stories tell about magic being used to protect the Jewish ghettos from the persecution of gentiles.  e.g. the story of the Golem. (click here for Jewish Resources on the Unit Four web page)

Within Hinduism, the Upanishads teach a form of Monistic mysticism.  Yoga, with its emphasis on ascetic punishing and disciplining the body in order to liberate the spirit tends to be a more dualistic form of Hinduism.  It is precisely this negative dualism that inspired Gautama Buddha to create the path of the middle way. (Click here for Indian Religion Resources on the Unit Two web page.)  However, it should be noted that the Upanishads, which are chronologically later than other Hindu scriptures, do teach a very sophisticated form of Monistic mysticism.

Monotheism (Judaism, Christianity, Islam):  Originating in the Middle East (Iran, Israel, and Saudi Arabia) long ago, they promote social norms defined at that time.  (1,500 BC to 700 AD)  God is envisioned as an omniscient judge of moral behavior.  Divine Law is a central concept.  Religion is conceived in very literal, historical terms.  The Savior/Prophet was a REAL person and everything He did was true.  All other religions are not only evil and false, but mere myths.  Generally there is a personified principle of Evil (either metaphysical or political).  There has been a strong tendency among these religions to treat non-believers in very bad ways, and to force their morality and laws on people who do not wish to follow them.   Unlike the mystic forms mentioned above, the traditional or orthodox forms of Monotheistic religion reject mystic or direct experience in favor of the mediated experience of being part of a church, or by means of the Scripture itself.  Although Islam is a staunchly monotheistic religion, it is significant that there is a strong emphasis on the role of Evil.  Hence, this type of religion tends to manifest in both monistic and dualistic modes depending on the context.  

[ Click here to go to the Unit 5 Web Resources page for complete collection of links to Judaism, Christianity, Islam ]

Deism (Monotheisitic--Modern).  Deism foregrounds the notion of God as the architect of a mechanical universe with finite, determinable laws of "nature."  God as a rational principle is considerably less ominous than the traditional Hebraic Yahweh.  Hence, it becomes easier to lead a wholly secular life and capitalism is at least partially vindicated.  This form of theology was instrumental in the formulation of the United States and the French republic.  Deism draws heavily on the ideas of Descartes and Immanuel Kant.

Freemasonry has historically been connected to the Deist movement, which clearly did inform the writings of the revolutionary philosophers of the late Eighteenth Century.  They sought to replace monarchy with parliamentary governments and break the connection between Church and State still present in England.  Until the success of their revolutions, they had to exist as secret societies.  Today the Masons stress heavily their non-sectarian religious nature, and welcome Catholics, Protestants and Jews, though the vast majority are from Protestant backgrounds.  

Accusations made by some fundamentalists that the Masons are Deists are no longer valid.  Masonry has become an integral part of our society, and its members generally belong also to mainstream religions as well.  Catholics, Fundamentalists and Conspiracy Theorists have been making wildly false and exaggerated claims about the Masons for Centuries.  American presidents,  government officials and British royalty have been closely tied to this movement while the majority of the population practices mainstream monotheistic religion and mistakenly assumes their rulers do too.  Rousseau, Voltaire, Immanuel Kant, Thomas Paine, George Washington, John Locke, Isaac Newton and Rene Descartes were definitely Deists, and probably Masons.  W.A. Mozart was deeply Masonic, and works such as The Magic Flute include many references to Masonic symbolism.

Freemasonic mysticism and Catholic mysticism, and even rumors of Satanism have been connected with the Knights of Templar, a Medieval group of Knight-Monks that helped fight the Crusades, but were later exterminated by the Kings and Church of Europe.  

Buddhism